\section{Syntax}
\label{syn}
\texttt{cplint} permits the definition of discrete probability distributions and continuous probaility
densities.
\subsection{Discrete Probability Distributions}
\label{discrete}
LPAD and CP-logic programs consist of a set of annotated disjunctive clauses.
Disjunction in the head is represented with a semicolon and atoms in the head are separated from probabilities by a colon. For the rest, the usual syntax of Prolog is used.
A general CP-logic clause has the form
\begin{verbatim}
h1:p1 ; ... ; hn:pn :- Body.
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|Body| is a conjunction of goals as in Prolog.
 No parentheses are necessary. The \texttt{pi} are numeric expressions. It is up to the user to ensure that the numeric expressions are legal, i.e. that they sum up to less than one.

If the clause has an empty body, it can be represented like this
\begin{verbatim}
h1:p1 ; ... ; hn:pn.
\end{verbatim}
If the clause has a single head with probability 1, the annotation can be omitted and the clause takes the form of a normal prolog clause, i.e. 
\begin{verbatim}
h1 :- Body.
\end{verbatim}
stands for 
\begin{verbatim}
h1:1 :- Body.
\end{verbatim}
The coin example of  \cite{VenVer04-ICLP04-IC} is represented as (file \href{http://cplint.eu/e/coin.pl}{\texttt{coin.pl}})
\begin{verbatim}
heads(Coin):1/2 ; tails(Coin):1/2 :- 
  toss(Coin),\+biased(Coin).

heads(Coin):0.6 ; tails(Coin):0.4 :- 
  toss(Coin),biased(Coin).

fair(Coin):0.9 ; biased(Coin):0.1.

toss(coin).
\end{verbatim}
The first clause states that if we toss a coin that is not biased it has equal probability of landing heads and tails. The second states that if the coin is biased it has a slightly higher probability of landing heads. The third states that the coin is fair with probability 0.9 and biased with probability 0.1 and the last clause states that we toss a coin with certainty.

Moreover, the bodies of rules may contain built-in predicates, predicates
from the libraries \verb|lists|, \verb|apply| and \verb|clpr/nf_r|
plus the predicate
\begin{verbatim}
average/2
\end{verbatim}
that, given a list of numbers, computes its arithmetic mean.

The body of rules may also contain the predicate \verb|prob/2| that computes the
probability of an atom, thus allowing nested probability computations.
For example (\href{http://cplint.eu/e/meta.pl}{\texttt{meta.pl}})
\begin{verbatim}
a:0.2:-
  prob(b,P),
  P>0.2.
\end{verbatim}
is a valid rule.

Moreover, the probabilistic annotations can be variables, as in 
(\href{http://cplint.eu/e/flexprob.pl}{\texttt{flexprob.pl}})
\begin{verbatim}
red(Prob):Prob.

draw_red(R, G):-
  Prob is R/(R + G),
  red(Prob).
\end{verbatim}
Variables in probabilistic annotations must be ground when resolution reaches the end of the body, 
otherwise an exception is raised.

Alternative ways of specifying probability distribution include
\begin{verbatim}
A:discrete(Var,D):-Body.
\end{verbatim}
or
\begin{verbatim}
A:finite(Var,D):-Body.
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|A| is an atom containg variable \verb|Var| and \verb|D|
is a list of couples \verb|Value:Prob| assigning probability \verb|Prob|
to \verb|Value|. 
Moreover, you can use
\begin{verbatim}
A:uniform(Var,D):-Body.
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|A| is an atom containg variable \verb|Var| and \verb|D|
is a list of values each taking the same probability (1 over the length
of \verb|D|).
\subsubsection{ProbLog Syntax}
You can also use ProbLog \cite{DBLP:conf/ijcai/RaedtKT07} syntax, so a general clause takes the form
\begin{verbatim}
p1::h1 ; ... ; pn::hn :- Body
\end{verbatim}
where the \texttt{pi} are numeric expressions. 

\subsubsection{PRISM Syntax}
You can also use PRISM \cite{DBLP:conf/ijcai/SatoK97} syntax, so a program is composed of
a set of regular Prolog rules whose body may contain calls to the \verb|msw/2| predicate (multi-ary 
switch). A call \verb|msw(term,value)| means that a random variable associated to \verb|term|
assumes value \verb|value|. The admissible values  for a discrete random variable are 
specified using facts for the \verb|values/2| predicate of the form
\begin{verbatim}
values(T,L).
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|T| is a term (possibly containing variables) and \verb|L| is a list of values.
The distribution over values is specified using directives for \verb|set_sw/2| of the form
\begin{verbatim}
:- set_sw(T,LP).
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|T| is a term (possibly containing variables) and \verb|LP| is a list of
probability values.
Remember that usually in PRISM each call to \verb|msw/2| refers to a different random
variable, i.e., no memoing is performed, differently from the case of LPAD/CP-Logic/ProbLog.
This behavior can be changed with the setting \verb|prism_memoization|: if set to \verb|true| then 
memoization is performed. Its default value is \verb|false|, i.e., no memoization.

For example, the coin example above in PRISM syntax becomes
(\href{http://cplint.eu/e/coinmsw.pl}{\texttt{coinmsw.pl}})
\begin{verbatim}
values(throw(_),[heads,tails]).
:- set_sw(throw(fair),[0.5,0.5]).
:- set_sw(throw(biased),[0.6,0.4]).
values(fairness,[fair,biased]).
:- set_sw(fairness,[0.9,0.1]).
res(Coin,R):- toss(Coin),fairness(Coin,Fairness),msw(throw(Fairness),R).
fairness(_Coin,Fairness) :- msw(fairness,Fairness).
toss(coin).
\end{verbatim}
\subsection{Continuous Probability Densities}
\label{cont}

\verb|cplint| handles continuous or integer random variables as well with its
sampling inference module.
To specify a probability density on an argument \verb|Var| of an atom
\verb|A| you can used rules of the form
\begin{verbatim}
A:Density:- Body
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|Density| is a special atom identifying a probability  density on variable \verb|Var| and \verb|Body| (optional) is a regular clause body.
Allowed \verb|Density| atoms are
\begin{itemize}
\item \verb|uniform(Var,L,U)|: \verb|Var| is uniformly distributed in $[L,U]$
\item \verb|gaussian(Var,Mean,Variance)|: \verb|Var| follows a Gaussian distribution with mean \verb|Mean| and variance \verb|Variance|. The distribution can be multivariate if \verb|Mean| 
is a list and \verb|Variance| a list of lists representing the mean vector and the covariance matrix. In this case the values of \verb|Var| are lists of real values with the same length as
that of \verb|Mean|
\item \verb|dirichlet(Var,Par)|: \verb|Var| is a list of real
numbers following a Dirichlet distribution with $\alpha$ parameters specified
by the list \verb|Par|
\item \verb|gamma(Var,Shape,Scale)|  \verb|Var| follows a gamma distribution 
with shape parameter \verb|Shape| and scale parameter \verb|Scale|.
\item \verb|beta(Var,Alpha,Beta)|  \verb|Var| follows a beta distribution 
with parameters \verb|Alpha| and \verb|Beta|.
\item \verb|poisson(Var,Lambda)|  \verb|Var| follows a Poisson distribution 
with parameter \verb|Lambda| (rate).
\item \verb|binomial(Var,N,P)|  \verb|Var| follows a binomial distribution 
with parameters \verb|N| (number of trials) and \verb|P| (success probability).
\item \verb|geometric(Var,P)|  \verb|Var| follows a geometric distribution 
with parameter \verb|P| (success probability).
\item \verb|exponential(Var,Lambda)|  \verb|Var| follows an exponential distribution 
with parameter \verb|Lambda| (rate, or inverse scale).
\item \verb|pascal(Var,R,P)|  \verb|Var| follows an exponential distribution 
with parameters \verb|R| (number of failures) and  \verb|P| (success probability).
\end{itemize}
For example
\begin{verbatim}
g(X): gaussian(X,0, 1).
\end{verbatim}
states that argument \verb|X| of \verb|g(X)| follows a Gaussian 
distribution with mean 0 and variance 1, while
\begin{verbatim}
g(X): gaussian(X,[0,0], [[1,0],[0,1]]).
\end{verbatim}
states that argument \verb|X| of \verb|g(X)| follows a Gaussian 
multivariate distribution with mean vector $[0,0]$ and covariance matrix
$$\left[\begin{array}{rr}
1&0\\
0&1
\end{array}\right]$$.



For example, \href{http://cplint.eu/e/gaussian_mixture.pl}{\texttt{gaussian\_mixture.pl}} defines a mixture of two Gaussians:
\begin{verbatim}
heads:0.6;tails:0.4.
g(X): gaussian(X,0, 1).
h(X): gaussian(X,5, 2).
mix(X) :- heads, g(X).
mix(X) :- tails, h(X).
\end{verbatim}
The argument \verb|X| of
\verb|mix(X)| follows a distribution that is a mixture of two Gaussian,
one with mean 0 and variance 1 with probability 0.6 and one with 
mean 5 and variance 2 with probability 0.4.

The parameters of the distribution atoms can be taken from the probabilistic
atom, the example \href{http://cplint.eu/e/gauss_mean_est.pl}{\texttt{gauss\_mean\_est.pl}}
\begin{verbatim}
val(I,X) :-
  mean(M),
  val(I,M,X).
mean(M): gaussian(M,1.0, 5.0).
val(_,M,X): gaussian(X,M, 2.0).
\end{verbatim}
states that for an index \verb|I| the continuous variable \verb|X| is 
sampled from a Gaussian whose variance is 2 and whose mean is sampled from a Gaussian with mean 1 and
variance 5.

Any operation is allowed on continuous random variables. The example below
(\href{http://cplint.eu/e/kalman_filter.pl}{\texttt{kalman\_filter.pl}}) encodes a Kalman filter:
\begin{verbatim}
kf(N,O, T) :-
  init(S),
  kf_part(0, N, S,O,T).
kf_part(I, N, S,[V|RO], T) :-
  I < N,
  NextI is I+1,
  trans(S,I,NextS),
  emit(NextS,I,V),
  kf_part(NextI, N, NextS,RO, T).
kf_part(N, N, S, [],S).
trans(S,I,NextS) :-
  {NextS =:= E + S},
  trans_err(I,E).
emit(NextS,I,V) :-
  {NextS =:= V+X},
  obs_err(I,X).
init(S):gaussian(S,0,1).
trans_err(_,E):gaussian(E,0,2).
obs_err(_,E):gaussian(E,0,1).
\end{verbatim}
Continuous random variables are involved
in arithmetic expressions (in \verb|trans/3| and \verb|emit/3|). It
is often convenient, as in this case, to use CLP(R) constraints (by
including the directive \verb|:- use_module(library(clpr)).|) as 
in this way the expressions can be used in multiple directions and 
the same clauses can be used both to sample and to evaluate the weight of the sample on the basis
of evidence,
otherwise different clauses have to be written.
In case random variables are not sufficiently instantiated to 
exploit expressions for inferring the values of other variables, 
inference will return an error.


Moreover, user defined distributions are allowed with the syntax:
\begin{verbatim}
A:user(Var,Density):-Body.
\end{verbatim}
where \verb|Var| appears in \verb|A| and will contain the sampled value and \verb|Density| is an atom of the form \verb|predicate(Parameters)|.
If  \verb|predicate| in \verb|predicate(Parameters)| has arity \verb|n|, then the user has to define predicate \verb|predicate/n+1| such that \
\begin{verbatim}
predicate(Parameters,Var)
\end{verbatim}
called with \verb|Parameters| instantiated, returns in \verb|Var| a value sampled from the user defined density.
The definition of \verb|predicate/n+1| should appear after \verb|:- end_lpad.|

If likelihood weighting or particle filtering will be used for inference, then the user has to define also predicate \verb|predicate/n+2| such that \verb|predicate(Parameters,Var,Dens)|, when
called  with \verb|Parameters| and \verb|Var| instantiated, returns in \verb|Dens| the value of the probability density of \verb|Var|.
The definition of \verb|predicate/n+2| should appear after \verb|:- end_lpad.|
Moreover, if the density is discrete, the program must include the fact
\begin{verbatim}
disc(predicate).
\end{verbatim}
also  after \verb|:- end_lpad.|

See for example \href{http://cplint.eu/e/gauss_mean_est_user.pl}{\texttt{gauss\_mean\_est\_user.pl}} and
\href{http://cplint.eu/e/binomial_user.pl}{\texttt{binomial\_user.pl}}.

\subsubsection{Distributional Clauses Syntax}
\label{dc}
You can also use the syntax of Distributional Clauses (DC) \cite{Nitti2016}.
Continuous random variables are represented in this case by term whose distribution can be specified with density atoms as in
\begin{verbatim}
T~Density' := Body.
\end{verbatim}
Here \verb|:=| replaces the implication symbol, \verb|T| is a term and \verb|Density'| is one of the density atoms above without the \verb|Var| argument, because \verb|T|
itself represents a random variables. In the body of clauses you can use the infix operator \verb|~=| to equate a term representing a random variable with a logical variable or
a constant as in \verb|T ~= X|. Internally \verb|cplint| transforms the terms representing random variables into atoms with an extra argument for holding the variable.
DC can be used to represent also discrete distributions using
\begin{verbatim}
T~uniform(L) := Body.
T~finite(D) := Body.
\end{verbatim} 
where \verb|L| is a list of values and \verb|D| is a list of couples \verb|P:V| with \verb|P| a probability and \verb|V| a value.
If \verb|Body| is empty, as in regular Prolog, the implication symbol \verb|:=| can be omitted.

The Indian GPA problem from \url{http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~fwood/anglican/examples/viewer/?worksheet=indian-gpa}in distributional clauses syntax  (\url{https://github.com/davidenitti/DC/blob/master/examples/indian-gpa.pl})
takes the form (\href{http://cplint.eu/e/indian_gpadc.pl}{\texttt{indian\_gpadc.pl}}):
\begin{verbatim}
is_density_A:0.95;is_discrete_A:0.05.
% the probability distribution of GPA scores for American students is
% continuous with probability 0.95 and discrete with probability 0.05

agpa(A): beta(A,8,2) :- is_density_A.
% the GPA of American students follows a beta distribution if the
% distribution is continuous

american_gpa(G) : finite(G,[4.0:0.85,0.0:0.15]) :- is_discrete_A.
% the GPA of American students is 4.0 with probability 0.85 and 0.0
% with 
% probability 0.15 if the
% distribution is discrete
american_gpa(A):- agpa(A0), A is A0*4.0.
% the GPA of American students is obtained by rescaling the value of
% agpa
% to the (0.0,4.0) interval
is_density_I : 0.99; is_discrete_I:0.01.
% the probability distribution of GPA scores for Indian students is
% continuous with probability 0.99 and discrete with probability 
% 0.01
igpa(I): beta(I,5,5) :- is_density_I.
% the GPA of Indian students follows a beta distribution if the
% distribution is continuous
indian_gpa(I): finite(I,[0.0:0.1,10.0:0.9]):-  is_discrete_I.
% the GPA of Indian students is 10.0 with probability 0.9 and 0.0
% with
% probability 0.1 if the
% distribution is discrete
indian_gpa(I) :- igpa(I0), I is I0*10.0.
% the GPA of Indian students is obtained by rescaling the value 
% of igpa
% to the (0.0,4.0) interval
nation(N) : finite(N,[a:0.25,i:0.75]).
% the nation is America with probability 0.25 and India with 
% probability 0.75
student_gpa(G):- nation(a),american_gpa(G).
% the GPA of the student is given by american_gpa if the nation is 
% America
student_gpa(G) :- nation(i),indian_gpa(G).
% the GPA of the student is given by indian_gpa if the nation 
%is India
\end{verbatim}
See